[The
effect of astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on cell
mediated immunity (CMI) in burned
mice]
Liang H, Zhang Y, Geng B
Research Institute of Surgery, Third Military
Medical College, Chongqing.
Chung Hua Cheng Hsing Shao Shang Wai Ko Tsa Chih
1994 Mar;10(2):138-41
In this paper, the changes in CMI in mice were
determined after burn injury, and the effects of
APS on CMI of burned mice were investigated in
vivo. The results showed that on day 6 postburn,
spleen index and thymus index were reduced, T
lymphocyte transformation and interleukin 2 (IL-2)
production were suppressed. Furthermore, the serum
and macrophages from burned mice showed
significant suppressive activity upon T lymphocyte
transformation in vitro, and suppressive index
(SI) of suppressor T cell (Ts) was greater than
that of normal controls. Intraperitoneal
administration of APS (250mg/kg daily, from day 0
to 5 could restore spleen index and thymus index
of burned mice, reverse the suppression of T
lymphocyte transformation and IL-2 production,
reduce remarkably the suppressive activity of
serum, macrophages and Ts. It is suggested that
(1) burn injury-induced suppression of CMI may be
related to the augmented suppressive activity of
serum, macrophages and Ts; (2) administration of
APS may restore the impaired CMI after burn injury
by reducing the suppressive activity of postburn
serum, macrophages and Ts.
Immunomodulating Chinese herbal
medicines.
Li XY
Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese
Academy of Sciences.
Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz (Brazil) 1991, 86 Suppl 2
p159-64
Traditional Chinese medicine always pays close
attention to the strengthening of the patient's
general resistance against illness, there are many
Chinese herbs used for thousands of years are
considered as tonics. Animal experiments and
modern clinical trails have shown that quite a
number herbs are immunologically active, and most
of the tonics are excellent immunomodulating
agents, such as polysaccharides or saponins
isolated from Astragalus mongholicus, Acanthopanax
senticosus and Panax notoginseng, which stimulated
macrophages, promoted antibody formation,
activated complement and increased T lymphocyte
proliferation. Moreover, some of them were proved
to be anti-irradiative and protected animals from
liver intoxications. On the other hand, some
anti-inflammative or anti-pyretic herbs such as
Tripterygium wilfordii, Aconitum and Artemisiae
species were proved to have immunosuppressive
principles, some of them were now used clinically
for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, chronic
nephritis, systemic lupus erythematosis and
various skin disorders. Pharmacological studies
revealed that they have depressant effect on most
of the humoral-immunity but not on the
cell-mediated immunity. Some of them stimulated
adrenal cortex functions and prolonged the
survival time of transplanted allograft
tissues.
[The
effect of vitamin A and Astragalus on the splenic
T lymphocyte-CFU of burned mice]
Pang SF
Chung Hua Cheng Hsing Shao Shang Wai Ko Tsa Chih
(China) Jun 1989, 5 (2) p122-4, 159
In present study the effects of vitamin A and
Astargalus on the splenic TL-CFU of mice were
studied by means of T-lymphocytes colony formation
in semi-solid culture in vitro and incorporation
of 3H-TdR. Marked reduction of the responsive
reaction of TL-CFU and T-lymphocyte transformation
were found. The TL-CFU of the experimentally
burned mice untreated with vitamin A (i.e. group
1) were significantly inhibited (p less than
0.005) in comparison with the unburned control
group (i.e. group 4). And the TL-CFU of the
experimentally burned mice treated with vitamin A
(i.e. group 3) increased significantly (p less
than 0.005) in comparison with group 1.
Incorporation of 3H-TbR showed that vitamin A
might accelerate the proliferation of the TL-CFU
of the burned mice. It means that vitamin A might
be regarded as an effective agent for the reversal
of the inhibition of cell-mediated immunity in
post-burned state, whether Ahstragalus plays a
role in regulating immune inhibition needs further
investigation.
Nutritional antioxidants and the
modulation of inflammation: theory and
practice.
Grimble RF
Institute of Human Nutrition, University of
Southampton, UK.
New Horiz (United States) May 1994, 2 (2)
p175-85
Highly potent substances are produced by the
immune system. These substances include cytokines
and oxidant molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide,
free radicals, and hypochlorous acid. The purpose
of immune cell products is to destroy invading
organisms and damaged tissue, bringing about
recovery. However, oxidants and cytokines can
damage healthy tissue. Excessive or inappropriate
production of these substances is associated with
mortality and morbidity after infection and
trauma, and in inflammatory diseases. Oxidants
enhance interleukin-1, interleukin-8, and tumor
necrosis factor production in response to
inflammatory stimuli by activating the nuclear
transcription factor, NF kappa B. Sophisticated
antioxidant defenses directly and indirectly
protect the host against the damaging influence of
cytokines and oxidants. Indirect protection is
afforded by antioxidants, which reduce activation
of NF kappa B, thereby preventing up-regulation of
cytokine production by oxidants. Cytokines
increase both oxidant production and antioxidant
defenses, thus minimizing damage to the host.
While antioxidant defenses interact when a
component is compromised, the nature and extent of
the defenses are influenced by dietary intake of
sulfur amino acids, for glutathione synthesis, and
vitamins E and C. In animal studies, in vivo and
in vitro responses to inflammatory stimuli are
influenced by dietary intake of copper, zinc,
selenium, N-acetylcysteine, cysteine, methionine,
taurine, and vitamin E. Information from animal
studies has yet to be fully translated into a
clinical context. However, N-acetylcysteine,
vitamin E, and a cocktail of antioxidant nutrients
have reduced inflammatory symptoms in inflammatory
joint disease, acute and chronic pancreatitis, and
adult respiratory distress syndrome. Impaired
antioxidant defenses may contribute to disease
progression after infection with human
immunodeficiency virus. Powerful arguments have
been advanced for treatment with antioxidants to
slow progression of acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome. (76 Refs.)
Evaluation of zinc complexes on the
replication of rhinovirus 2 in vitro.
Merluzzi VJ; Cipriano D; McNeil D; Fuchs V;
Supeau C; Rosenthal AS; Skiles JW
Department of Immunology, Boehringer Ingelheim
Pharmaceuticals Inc., Ridgefield, CT 06877.
Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol (United States)
Dec 1989, 66 (3) p425-40
The effect of zinc salts and complexes were
evaluated on the replication of rhinovirus 2 in
vitro. Zinc chloride inhibited the replication of
rhinovirus 2 at concentrations between 3 and 12
micrograms/ml. Influenza virus was not affected. A
number of zinc complexes were tested and compared
to zinc chloride. The results indicated that the
activity and toxicity of all zinc complexes in the
rhinovirus cytopathogenic effect (CPE) assay were
directly related to the amount of unbound zinc
available.
Zinc
gluconate and the common cold: a controlled
clinical study.
Godfrey JC; Conant Sloane B; Smith DS; Turco
JH; Mercer N; Godfrey NJ
Dartmouth College Health Service, Hanover, New
Hampshire.
J Int Med Res (England) Jun 1992, 20 (3)
p234-46
A report in 1984 on the success of zinc
gluconate against common cold symptoms could not
be confirmed in three subsequent studies, which
are now known to have used formulations that
inactivated zinc. A non-chelating formulation
including glycine, which releases 93% of contained
zinc into saliva, was tested in a randomized,
placebo-controlled, double-blind trial in 73 young
adults. Efficacy was recorded in symptom diaries
using a symptom severity rating. Patients'
symptoms first appeared 1.34 days prior to entry
to the study in both groups. Disappearance of
symptoms occurred after an additional 4.9 days for
zinc-treated patients versus 6.1 days for
placebo-treated patients. A difference was noted
in the efficacy of treatment if it was started 1
day after symptom onset: cold duration was an
additional 4.3 days in zinc-treated patients
compared with 9.2 days for placebo-treated
patients. Cough, nasal drainage and congestion
were the symptoms most affected, and only mild
side-effects were noted.
Prophylaxis and treatment of
rhinovirus colds with zinc gluconate
lozenges.
Al-Nakib W; Higgins PG; Barrow I; Batstone G;
Tyrrell DA
MRC Common Cold Unit, Harvard Hospital,
Salisbury, Wiltshire, U.K.
J Antimicrob Chemother (England) Dec 1987, 20 (6)
p893-901
Following a tolerance study, double-blind
placebo controlled trials were conducted to
determine the prophylactic effect of zinc
gluconate lozenges on rhinovirus challenge and, in
a third study, their therapeutic efficacy when
given at the start of colds caused by virus
inoculation was tested. In the prophylaxis study a
total of 57 volunteers received lozenges of either
zinc gluconate (23 mg) (29 volunteers) or matched
placebo (28 volunteers) every 2 h while awake
during a period of four and a half days. They were
challenged with 10(2) tissue culture infecting
dose (TCID50) of human rhinovirus 2 (HRV-2) on the
second day of medication, and were monitored daily
for symptoms and signs of colds and laboratory
evidence of infection. Zinc reduced the total mean
clinical score from 8.2 in the placebo group to
5.7 and the reduction of the mean clinical score
was statistically significant on the second day
after virus challenge. In the therapeutic study 69
volunteers were inoculated with 10(2) TCID50 of
HRV-2 and those who developed cold symptoms were
randomly allocated to receive either zinc
gluconate lozenges (six volunteers) or matched
placebo lozenges (six volunteers) every two hours
they were awake for six days. Treatment of colds
with zinc reduced the mean daily clinical score
and this was statistically significant on the
fourth and fifth day of medication. Similarly,
medication also reduced the mean daily nasal
secretion weight and total tissue count and these
reductions were statistically significant on days
two and six for nasal secretion weights and days
four to six of medication for tissue counts when
compared with placebo.
Reduction in duration of common colds
by zinc gluconate lozenges in a double-blind
study.
Eby GA; Davis DR; Halcomb WW
Antimicrob Agents Chemother (United States) Jan
1984, 25 (1) p20-4
As a possible treatment for common colds, we
tested zinc gluconate lozenges in a double-blind,
placebo-controlled, clinical trial. One 23-mg zinc
lozenge or matched placebo was dissolved in the
mouth every 2 wakeful h after an initial double
dose. After 7 days, 86% of 37 zinc-treated
subjects were asymptomatic, compared with only 46%
of 28 placebo-treated subjects (P = 0.0005). Side
effects or complaints were usually minor and
consisted mainly of objectionable taste and mouth
irritation. Zinc lozenges shortened the average
duration of common colds by about 7 days.
Antivirals for the chemoprophylaxis
and treatment of influenza.
Van Voris LP; Newell PM
Division of Infectious Diseases, Hamot Medical
Center, Erie, PA.
Semin Respir Infect (United States) Mar 1992, 7
(1) p61-70
Influenza virus infections are one of the
leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the
United States. Several antiviral agents,
amantadine, rimantadine, and ribavirin, have been
shown to be either therapeutically or
prophylactically effective in influenza virus
infections. Amantadine and rimantadine are
effective, via the oral route, in treating and
preventing influenza A infections. Aerosolized
preparations of amantadine and rimantadine have
also shown therapeutic efficacy against influenza
A. Oral ribavirin has slight therapeutic efficacy
in influenza A, but has also shown promising
results in therapy of influenza B infections.
Aerosolized ribavirin has also shown promise in
treatment of patients who are severely ill with
influenza A and B.
Utilization of pulse oximetry for the
study of the inhibitory effects of antiviral
agents on influenza virus in mice.
Sidwell RW; Huffman JH; Gilbert J; Moscon B;
Pedersen G; Burger R; Warren RP
Institute for Antiviral Research, Utah State
University, Logan 84322-5600.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother (United States) Feb
1992, 36 (2) p473-6
Pulmonary disease in mice induced by influenza
virus was monitored by measurement of oxygen
saturation (SaO2) in blood with a pulse oximeter.
The SaO2 declined in inverse proportion to the
viral inoculum. The known antiviral agent
ribavirin inhibited the SaO2 decline, prevented
death, lowered lung consolidation, and reduced the
level of recoverable virus. Pulse oximetry is an
effective means of monitoring murine influenzal
disease and can be used in the study of potential
antiviral drugs.
Further
studies with short duration ribavirin aerosol for
the treatment of influenza virus infection in mice
and respiratory syncytial virus infection in
cotton rats.
Gilbert BE; Wyde PR; Ambrose MW; Wilson SZ;
Knight V
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baylor
College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030.
Antiviral Res (Netherlands) Jan 1992, 17 (1)
p33-42
Ribavirin aerosol administration has been shown
to be effective in the treatment of respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) infections in infants and in
influenza A and B virus infections in young
adults. Long treatment schedules and potential for
environmental contamination have stimulated the
search for alternative dosing schedules. Thus, we
attempted to determine the length of time of
ribavirin aerosol necessary for effective
treatment of influenza and RSV. In RSV-infected
cotton rats, aerosolization for just 30 min with
high-dose ribavirin (HDR:60 mg ribavirin/ml in
reservoir), 3 times daily, reduced viral lung
titers/gm of tissue by 1.1 log10. In influenza
virus-infected mice, 15 min of aerosolized HDR, 3
times daily, was effective in reducing both
mortality and pulmonary virus titers (1.1 log10
reduction). When the intervals between aerosol
administration each day were equally divided
(i.e., q.8 h), the treatments were most effective.
Treatment for 45 min, once daily, was not as
effective as divided doses. Calculations of
ribavirin concentrations in respiratory secretions
following 15 min treatment in mice with HDR
indicated that drug levels dropped below the ED50
for influenza viruses after about 9 h. A daily
dosage of ribavirin, estimated to be 8-15 mg/kg,
was effective for the treatment of influenza and
RSV infections.
High
dose-short duration ribavirin aerosol treatment--a
review.
Knight V, Gilbert BE, Wyde PR, Englund JA
Center for Biotechnology, Baylor College of
Medicine, Houston, Texas 77381.
Bull Int Union Tuberc Lung Dis 1991
Jun-Sep;66(2-3):97-101
A high-dose, short-duration treatment with
ribavirin aerosol consisting of a three-fold
increase in concentration of drug (60 mg versus 20
mg of ribavirin per mL in the liquid reservoir of
the generator administered for about one-third the
time of the standard treatment) was as effective
as the standard dosage in the treatment of
experimental influenza A and B infections in mice
and in the treatment of experimental respiratory
syncytial virus infection in cotton rats. Despite
some minor pulmonary intolerance, it was
considered to be suitable for use in treatment of
patients with severe chronic pulmonary disease,
and it was well-tolerated and apparently effective
in the treatment (by face mask and endotracheal
tube) of infants with bronchiolitis principally
caused by respiratory syncytial virus infection.
Pharmacokinetic studies in mice revealed very high
concentrations of drug in the lungs, about triple
the level with the standard dose, with similar
blood and brain concentrations. Ribavirin
concentrations were similarly high in respiratory
secretions of infants given the triple dose.
Viral
pneumonia.
Greenberg SB
Department of Medicine, Baylor College of
Medicine, Houston, Texas.
Infect Dis Clin North Am 1991 Sep;5(3):603-21
Viral pneumonias are common in infants and
young children but rare in adults. Respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) and para-influenza viruses
are the most frequent viral pathogens in infants
and children. Influenza virus types A and B
account for over one half of viral pneumonias in
adults. Immunocompromised hosts are susceptible to
pneumonias caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV) and
other herpesviruses, as well as rubeola and
adenovirus. Diagnosis of viral pneumonia depends
on appropriate viral cultures and acute and
convalescent sera for specific antibodies.
Superinfection with bacteria is common in adults.
Anti-viral therapy is available for several
respiratory viruses. Ribavirin,
amantadine/rimantadine, interferon alpha, and
acyclovir are antiviral drugs that may be of
benefit in treatment and prophylaxis. Prevention
of viral pneumonia will depend upon improved viral
immunization practices.
Aerosol
and intraperitoneal administration of ribavirin
and ribavirin triacetate: pharmacokinetics and
protection of mice against intracerebral infection
with influenza A/WSN virus.
Gilbert BE; Wyde PR; Wilson SZ; Robins RK
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Baylor
College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother (United States) Jul
1991, 35 (7) p1448-53
Ribavirin is active in vitro but not in vivo
against a number of viruses capable of causing
encephalitis. Ribavirin triacetate (RTA), a
lipophilic derivative, has been reported to be
more effective than ribavirin in protecting
animals from encephalitis. By using an influenza
A/WSN virus encephalitis model, we demonstrated
that RTA administered by small-particle aerosol
was able to decrease the death rate and increase
the time of survival. To determine if this
beneficial effect was due to increased delivery of
drug, the pharmacokinetic properties of ribavirin
and RTA when administered as an aerosol or by
intraperitoneal injection were examined. Aerosol
administration of ribavirin or RTA gave
significantly higher concentrations of ribavirin
in the lungs and serum of mice than did
intraperitoneal injection. There was no
difference, however, in ribavirin levels when
either ribavirin or RTA was administered by
small-particle aerosol. In brain tissue, ribavirin
concentrations increased with time and did not
appear to decrease as rapidly as in lungs and
serum. Mean peak ribavirin concentrations in the
brain were higher following aerosol administration
of ribavirin than RTA, and both were higher than
that following intraperitoneal injection of either
drug. Administration of ribavirin or RTA by
intraperitoneal injection failed to protect mice
from a lethal intracerebral inoculation of
influenza A/WSN virus, while aerosolized RTA did
protect mice. The pharmacokinetics of ribavirin in
brain tissue following aerosol administration of
either drug did not explain the advantage of RTA
over ribavirin in protecting mice from
intracerebral infection with influenza A/WSN
virus.
Antiviral drug therapy.
Goodpasture HC
University of Kansas School of
Medicine-Wichita.
Am Fam Physician (United States) Jan 1991, 43 (1)
p197-204
Major advances in molecular virology have led
to the development of new antiviral compounds.
These drugs include ribavirin, used in the
treatment of severe respiratory syncytial virus
infection in children; amantadine, used in the
prophylaxis and treatment of influenza A
infection; acyclovir, used in a variety of
herpesvirus infections, including primary
gingivostomatitis, genital herpes and herpes
zoster; ganciclovir, used in the treatment of
retinitis due to cytomegalovirus, and zidovudine,
used in the prophylaxis and treatment of human
immunodeficiency virus infection.
Molecular mechanisms of action of
ribavirin.
Patterson JL; Fernandez-Larsson R
Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's
Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115.
Rev Infect Dis 1990 Nov-Dec;12(6):1139-46
Ribavirin
(1-beta-D-ribofuranosyl-1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide)
is a broad-spectrum antiviral agent whose
molecular mode of action remains remarkably
controversial. This antiviral agent was approved
by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1986
for use as an aerosol for infants with serious
infections due to respiratory syncytial virus.
Ribavirin is and has been under clinical
investigation for activity against a variety of
viral illnesses, including those due to influenza
virus, Lassa fever virus, Hantaan virus, and human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). There has been a
great deal of clinical interest in the utilization
of ribavirin for treatment of infections due to
HIV. It has been reported to slow the development
of AIDS in HIV-infected patients. We describe here
the major mechanisms of action of this newly
licensed antiviral agent.
New
acquisitions in the chemotherapy of viral
infections.
De Clercq E
Department of Human Biology, Rega Institute for
Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium.
Verh K Acad Geneeskd Belg 1990;52(1):69-99
The development of new antiviral agents has
gained increasing momentum. It has kept pace with
the identification of specific sites ("targets")
in the virus replicative cycle at which potential
antiviral drug can interact. The current
armamentarium of available antiviral drugs
consists of amantadine and rimantadine (against
influenza A), ribavirin (against respiratory
syncytial virus infection), idoxuridine and
trifluridine (against herpetic keratitis),
vidarabine and acyclovir (against herpes simplex
virus infections), ganciclovir (against
cytomegalovirus infections) and Retrovir (against
AIDS). Various new compounds have been found which
selectively inhibit those viruses [i.e.
adenovirus, varicella-zoster virus, thymidine
kinase-deficient (TK-) herpes simplex virus
strains, and rhinoviruses] that are insensitive or
poorly sensitive to the presently available
antivirals. Several new compounds have also proven
active against human immunodeficiency virus, the
causative agent of AIDS; and, as a spin-off of the
search for anti-AIDS drugs, new agents may also be
expected that are effective against other
retrovirus infections as well as hepadnavirus
(i.e. hepatitis B virus) infections. (86
Refs.)
Comparison of oral and aerosol
ribavirin regimens in the high risk
elderly
Bernstein JM; Liss H; Erk SD
Department of Medicine, Wright State University
School of Medicine, Dayton, OH.
J Clin Pharmacol 1989 Dec;29(12):1128-34
A comparison of different regiments of
ribavirin (R), administered either orally or by
aerosol, was performed in 16 elderly subjects (13
men, 3 women, mean age 63 +/- 8 years) considered
to be in the "high-risk" category for
complications from influenza as defined by the
Centers for Disease Control. The subjects were
divided into four groups. Group O-600 received 600
mg orally R every 8 hours for 48 hours followed by
200 mg every 8 hours for 72 hours for a total dose
of 5.4 g (22.1 mmol). Group O-800 received 800 mg
oral R every 8 hours for 24 hours followed by 400
mg every 12 hours for 96 hours for a total dose of
4.1 g (22.9 mMoles). Group A-40 received R (40
mg/ml) aerosolized through a small particle
aerosol generator for 6 hours every 12 hours for
96 hours, yielding an average delivered dose of
6.2 g (25.4 mMoles) R. Group A-60 received
aerosolized R (60 mg/mL) for 2 hours every 8 hours
for 96 hours, yielding an average delivered dose
of 4.6 g (18.8 mMoles) R. No hematologic or other
laboratory abnormalities were associated with any
of the regimens. Group O-800 and O-600 reached
mean peak plasma R levels of 11.8 microM and 5.3
microM, respectively, after 18 hours of therapy.
Subsequent administration of 20 mg R every 8 hours
was sufficient to maintain a plasma R level
greater than 7 microM. Among the aerosol groups,
group A-40 approached steady state plasma R levels
(8-10 microM) more quickly than group A-60.
Comparative activities of several
nucleoside analogs against influenza A, B, and C
viruses in vitro.
Shigeta S; Konno K; Yokota T; Nakamura K; De
Clercq E
Department of Bacteriology, Fukushima Medical
College, Japan.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1988
Jun;32(6):906-11.
A set of 20 nucleoside analogs were examined
for their inhibitory effects on the
cytopathogenicity and growth of influenza virus
type A, B, and C strains in Madin-Darby canine
kidney (MDCK) cells. Among the compounds
evaluated, pyrazofurin, 3-deazaguanine, ribavirin,
carbodine, and cyclopentenyl cytosine inhibited
viral cytopathogenicity at concentrations that
were lower than those found cytotoxic for the MDCK
cells. No differences were observed in the 50%
effective doses (based on inhibition of viral
cytopathogenicity) of these five compounds for a
number of influenza virus type A (subtypes H1N1
and H3N2), B, and C strains. Pyrazofurin showed
the lowest 50% effective dose (0.15 microgram/ml),
which was about 20- to 30-fold lower than those of
the other four compounds. The selectivity indices
of the five compounds, calculated as the ratio of
the 50% cytotoxic dose (determined by trypan blue
exclusion) to the 50% effective dose, were greater
than 100. When the selectivity indices were
calculated as the ratios of the 50% inhibitory
doses for cellular RNA synthesis to the 50%
effective doses, they were greater than 100 for
ribavirin, pyrazofurin, and 3-deazaguanine but
less than 2 for carbodine and cyclopentenyl
cytosine. All five compounds inhibited the growth
of influenza virus types A and B in MDCK cells at
a concentration which was well below their
cytotoxicity threshold for MDCK cells and,
therefore, deserve further exploration for their
potential in the treatment of influenza virus type
A, B, and C infections.
Antiviral drugs for common
respiratory diseases. What's here, what's to
come.
Johnson DC
Department of Pediatrics, Michael Reese Hospital,
Chicago, IL 60616.
Postgrad Med (United States) Feb 1 1988, 83 (2)
p136-9, 142-3, 146-8
Progress is being made in the development of
drugs for the prevention and treatment of viral
respiratory infections. Two drugs currently
available to clinicians are amantadine (Symmetral)
and ribavirin (Virazole). Oral amantadine is
effective for both treatment and prevention of
uncomplicated influenza A infections. Although
vaccination continues as the mainstay of influenza
prevention, amantadine is useful for unvaccinated
patients if complications are likely. When used
for treatment, it must be started within the first
48 hours of illness. Ribavirin appears to be safe
for treatment of respiratory syncytial virus
infections in nonintubated infants. It must be
delivered by aerosol in a hospital setting.
Patients at risk for complications should be given
the drug as early as possible in the course of the
disease. Efficacy has yet to be proven in
intubated patients, but the drug is probably safe
to use with proper supervision. On the horizon are
rimantadine and the interferons. Rimantadine is
similar to amantadine in its action and
indications for use and has a lower incidence of
side effects. The interferons have not been the
hoped-for panacea for viral respiratory infections
but may be useful in a nasal spray for the
prevention of colds caused by rhinovirus.
Oral
ribavirin treatment of influenza A and
B.
Stein DS; Creticos CM; Jackson GG; Bernstein
JM; Hayden FG; Schiff GM; Bernstein DI
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987
Aug;31(8):1285-7.
A loading dose and short-term administration of
oral ribavirin significantly improved symptoms and
signs of influenza type A or B infection in 25
patients. The antiviral effect was not
significant. No adverse clinical effects or
significant laboratory values were observed. Oral
treatment of patients with influenza A or B
infection might be possible with ribavirin.
Clinical review of
ribavirin.
Eggleston M
Infect Control (United States) May 1987, 8 (5)
p215-8
The recent approval of ribavirin aerosol for
the treatment of severe respiratory syncytial
virus (RSV) in infants and young children is a
significant addition to the antiviral drugs
available today. When administered as an
aerosolized form by face mask or mist tent for 20
to 21 hours per day, ribavirin effectively
decreases the symptoms of RSV infection and the
shedding of RSV virus. Studies of other viral
infections such as viral hepatitis, influenza A
and B, Lassa fever, genital herpes, and herpes
zoster have demonstrated promising, but
inconclusive results. Further studies are needed
to justify ribavirin therapy for these
indications.
Clinical use of antiviral
drugs.
Nahata MC
Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1987 May;21(5):399-405
Remarkable progress has been made in antiviral
chemotherapy. Six approved antiviral drugs are now
available for the treatment of various viral
infections. Trifluridine, idoxuridine and
vidarabine are all effective in patients with
herpes keratitis; trifluridine is preferred due to
its low toxicity. Acyclovir is the drug of choice
in patients with infections due to herpes simplex
viruses, including genital herpes, herpes
encephalitis, and neonatal herpes, and infections
due to varicella-zoster virus. Amantadine is the
only drug currently available for prophylaxis and
treatment of influenza A, but an investigational
drug, rimantadine, appears to be equally effective
and less toxic than amantadine. Ribavirin is the
most recently approved antiviral agent for the
treatment of respiratory syncytial virus
infections. Numerous antiviral drugs are being
studied in patients with acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome. Although currently available drugs have
improved our ability to manage a variety of viral
illnesses, much needs to be learned about specific
dosage guidelines based on the studies of
pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, potential
adverse effects and viral resistance, and the role
of combination therapy to optimize therapy.
Protection of mice from lethal
influenza virus infection with high dose-short
duration ribavirin aerosol.
Wyde PR; Wilson SZ; Gilbert BE; Smith RH
Antimicrob Agents Chemother (United States) Dec
1986, 30 (6) p942-4
An aerosol generated from a reservoir
containing 60 mg of ribavirin per ml given for 2 h
twice daily for 4 days afforded the same high
level of protection against lethal influenza virus
infection of mice as a longer, conventional
treatment schedule (20 mg/ml given for 11 h daily
for 4 days). Incremental decreases in ribavirin
concentration made while maintaining the 2-h
intermittent schedule provided progressively less
protection of mice. Mice exposed to the 60-mg/ml
doses had significantly increased pulmonary and
serum drug levels when compared with mice given 20
mg of drug per ml, these increases were transient,
and no evidence of pulmonary intolerance was
detected. These studies suggest that protective
effects of ribavirin against influenza virus
infection can be achieved without untoward effects
if higher doses and shorter periods of
administration are used.
Ribavirin: a clinical
overview.
Fernandez H; Banks G; Smith R
Eur J Epidemiol. 1986 Mar;2(1):1-14
Ribavirin, a broad spectrum,
non-interferon-inducing virustatic
chemotherapeutic agent, demonstrates activity
against a wide range of RNA and DNA viruses,
including the retrovirus known to cause the
acquired immune deficiency syndrome. The drug's
proposed mechanism of action, as well as
pharmacokinetics are discussed, and preclinical
toxicity, safety and clinical efficacy studies are
presented. To date, the best success has occurred
in the use of ribavirin to treat respiratory
syncytial virus infection in infants and young
children and to treat influenza A and B virus
infections in young adults. Viral infections,
particularly viral pneumonia, are often
life-threatening in infants with severe combined
immunodeficiency disease (SCID), and ribavirin
aerosol has been used successfully to treat
respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza
virus infection of immunodeficient children.
Special note is taken of ribavirin's clinical
benefit in treating severe and life-threatening
infections caused by the Lassa fever virus and the
significant improvement over either the use of
immune plasma or supportive therapy alone. Indeed,
ribavirin thus emerges as the first antiviral drug
that is able to reduce mortality in a highly
lethal systemic disease by more than 90%.
Additional studies demonstrate the drug's efficacy
in acute viral hepatitis, herpesvirus infections,
and measles. Controlled clinical trials are
underway to test the drug in patients infected
with the AIDS virus.
Effect
of ribavirin triphosphate on primer generation and
elongation during influenza virus transcription in
vitro.
Wray SK; Gilbert BE; Knight V
Antiviral Res (Netherlands) Feb 1985, 5 (1)
p39-48
These studies examine the effect of ribavirin
triphosphate (RTP) on two replicative functions
associated with influenza virus nucleocapsids,
primer generation and its subsequent elongation.
To study primer generation influenza virus cores
were added to beta-globin mRNA in the presence of
only [32P]GTP. To examine elongation, ATP and CTP
were added to the reaction mixture to permit
limited elongation, and products from both
reactions were separated on polyacrylamide gels
and quantified. Under these conditions, the 50%
inhibitory concentration of RTP for primer
generation was 3.0 mM, and the 50% inhibitory
concentration for elongation was 0.6 mM. RNA
polymerase activity associated with cores isolated
from clinical strains of influenza A and B viruses
reacted as did the laboratory strain of influenza
virus and was equally susceptible to inhibition by
RTP.
Ribavirin
Conner CS
Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1984 Feb;18(2):137-8
Despite the plethora of antibiotics available
for the treatment of bacterial infections, very
few agents have been developed to treat viral
diseases. Ribavirin (Virazole) is a triazole
nucleoside antiviral agent that produces selective
antiviral effects against a broad spectrum of RNA
and DNA viruses. The drug has been effective in
the treatment of naturally occurring influenza A
and B infections when administered by aerosol;
oral administration has been ineffective.
Ribavirin aerosol therapy also has proven
effective to reduce symptoms of respiratory
syncytial virus infections in young adults and
hospitalized neonates. Ribavirin aerosol may be
the first antiviral agent to treat these common
diseases.
[Immunomodulating activity of
ethanol-water extracts of the roots of Echinacea
gloriosa L., Echinacea angustifolia DC. and
Rudbeckia speciosa Wenderoth tested on the immune
system in C57BL6 inbred mice]
Bukovsky M; Vaverkova S; Kostalova D; Magnusova
R
Katedra biochemie a mikrobiologie Farmaceutickej
fakulty Univerzity Komenskeho, Bratislava.
Cesk Farm (Czech Republic) Aug 1993, 42 (4)
p184-7
The ethanolic extract from the roots Echinacea
gloriosa L. (Moench), Echinacea angustifolia DC.
and Rudbeckia speciosa Wenderoth shows
immunomodulating activity. It was seen on the
seventh day after five days of in vivo treatment
of mice. The most marked immunostimulatory effect
was observed on the lysosomal and peroxidal
activity of peritoneal macrophages, and splenic
cells after in vivo treatment with the ethanolic
xtract of the roots of R. speciosa Wenderoth.
Application of purified
polysaccharides from cell cultures of the plant
Echinacea purpurea to mice mediates protection
against systemic infections with Listeria
monocytogenes and Candida albicans.
Roesler J, Steinmuller C, Kiderlen A,
Emmendorffer A, Wagner H, Lohmann-Matthes ML
Fraunhofer-Institut, Department of Immunobiology,
Hannover, F.R.G.
Int J Immunopharmacol. 1991;13(1):27-37.
Purified polysaccharides from cell cultures of
the plant Echinacea purpurea were investigated for
their ability to enhance phagocytes' activities
regarding nonspecific immunity in vitro and in
vivo. Macrophages (M phi) from different organ
origin could be activated to produce IL-1, TNF
alpha and IL-6, to produce elevated amounts of
reactive oxygen intermediates and to inhibit
growth of Candida albicans in vitro. Furthermore,
in vivo the substances could induce increased
proliferation of phagocytes in spleen and bone
marrow and migration of granulocytes to the
peripheral blood. These effects indeed resulted in
excellent protection of mice against the
consequences of lethal infections with one
predominantly M phi dependent and one
predominantly granulocyte dependent pathogen,
Listeria monocytogenes and C. albicans,
respectively. Specific immune responses to sheep
red blood cells (antibody production) and to
listeria (DTH) were not affected by the
polysaccharides. The possibility of clinical use
is discussed.
Macrophage activation by the
polysaccharide arabinogalactan isolated from plant
cell cultures of Echinacea purpurea.
Luettig B; Steinmuller C; Gifford GE; Wagner H;
Lohmann-Matthes ML
Fraunhofer Institute fur Toxikologie, Abt.
Immunbiologie, Hannover, Federal Republic of
Germany.
J Natl Cancer Inst (United States) May 3 1989, 81
(9) p669-75
In this study, acidic arabinogalactan, a highly
purified polysaccharide from plant cell cultures
of Echinacea purpurea, with a molecular weight of
75,000, was effective in activating macrophages to
cytotoxicity against tumor cells and
micro-organisms (Leishmania enriettii).
Furthermore, this polysaccharide induced
macrophages to produce tumor necrosis factor
(TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and
interferon-beta 2. Arabinogalactan did not
activate B cells and did not induce T cells to
produce interleukin-2, interferon-beta 2, or
interferon-gamma, but it did induce a slight
increase in T-cell proliferation. When injected
ip, this agent stimulated macrophages, a finding
that may have therapeutic implications in the
defense against tumors and infectious
diseases.
Macrophage activation and induction
of macrophage cytotoxicity by purified
polysaccharide fractions from the plant Echinacea
purpurea.
Stimpel M; Proksch A; Wagner H; Lohmann-Matthes
ML
Infect Immun. 1984 Dec;46(3):845-9.
Purified polysaccharides (EPS) prepared from
the plant Echinacea purpurea are shown to strongly
activate macrophages. Macrophages activated with
these substances develop pronounced extracellular
cytotoxicity against tumor targets. The activation
is brought about by EPS alone and is independent
of any cooperative effect with lymphocytes. Also
the production and secretion of oxygen radicals
and interleukin 1 by macrophages is increased
after activation with EPS. Cells of the
macrophages lineage seem to be the main target for
the action of these polysaccharides. EPS has no
effect on T lymphocytes. B lymphocytes show a
comparatively modest proliferation after
incubation with E. purpurea EPS. Thus, these
compounds, which are at least in tissue culture
completely nontoxic, may be suited to activate in
vivo cells of the macrophage system to
cytotoxicity. They may therefore be of relevance
in tumor and infectious systems.
Combined antiviral and antimediator
treatment of rhinovirus colds.
Gwaltney JM Jr
Department of Internal Medicine, University of
Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville
22908.
J Infect Dis 1992 Oct;166(4):776-82
An antiviral agent and two antiinflammatory
compounds were used in a blinded,
placebo-controlled study to treat experimental
rhinovirus colds. Intranasal interferon-alpha 2b
and ipratropium and oral naproxen were begun 24 h
after rhinovirus inoculation. Treatment was
continued three times a day for 4 days. Viral
shedding (mean +/- SE) was 4.4 +/- 0.3 days for
controls and 2.9 +/- 0.3 days for treated
volunteers (P less than .003). Geometric mean
virus titers were reduced in the treated group on
all days (P = .02-.06). Serum antibody responses
and postinfection geometric mean antibody titers
were similar in both groups (P greater than .1).
Colds developed in 6 of 16 treated and 7 of 8
control subjects (P = .05). Mean total symptom
scores (P = .055), rhinorrhea (P less than .01),
cough (P less than .01), and malaise (P less than
.001) were reduced in treated subjects. Trends in
reduction of nasal obstruction and sore throat
also favored the treated group. Nasal secretion
weights were 12.9 +/- 4.8 g in treated and 20.3
+/- 5.4 g in control subjects (P = .4).
Medications were was tolerated.
[Common
cold: diagnostic steps? Antibiotics?]
Auckenthaler R
Division des maladies infectieuses, Hopital
cantonal universitaire, Geneve.
Ther Umsch (Switzerland) Apr 1992, 49 (4)
p211-5
The common cold is caused by more than 100
virus types. However, the clinical manifestation
is always similar with rhinorrhea, stuffiness,
sneezing, pharyngitis, laryngitis and cough. The
local inflammatory reactions are not due to the
presence of virus but caused by locally produced
inflammatory mediators. Bacterial superinfections
may cause otitis or sinusitis. Bacterial
nasopharyngitis has been described in children.
This entity possibly exists also in adults.
Traditional viral cultures are rarely positive and
are not recommended in the daily routine. In
children, antigen detection for adenovirus,
respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza and
influenza virus are recommended to confirm the
viral etiology or for epidemiological
surveillance. The presence of group-A streptococci
must be proven by culture or antigen detection
before treatment with penicillin. Antiviral
treatment is limited to interferon or ribavirin.
New antiviral substances are in development.
Today, treatment of common cold is limited to
symptomatic measures, and antibiotic treatment is
not justified.
Alpha
2-interferon for the common cold.
Enlow ML, Haley CJ
Ann Pharmacother 1992 Mar;26(3):345-7
No abstract.
Managing viral upper respiratory
infections.
Del Mar C
Aust Fam Physician 1991 May;20(5):557-61
The epidemiology of the common cold is reviewed
with the aim of providing helpful advice for
patients. Future management will include limiting
the spread of the cold virus by attention to the
mode of transmission and the development of
anti-viral drugs, of which interferon holds the
most promise.
Immunological barriers in the nose
and paranasal sinuses.
Mygind N, Winther B
Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) 1987
May-Jun;103(5-6):363-8
This review deals mainly with lymphocyte
subsets in the human nasal mucosa, and with the
common cold. Lymphocytes have recently been
characterized in biopsy specimens by an
immuno-histochemical method (the avidin-biotin,
monoclonal antibody peroxidase technique). In
summary, the overall T:B cell ratio was 3:1 and
that of T helper cells to T suppressor was 2.5:1;
topographical differences within the nasal mucosa
were identified. Non-specific defence systems,
such as interferon, provide some protection
against rhinovirus infection, but most important
is the presence of specific antibodies against a
given antigenic type of virus. Recent results have
suggested that a rhinovirus infection does not
cause a marked destruction of the epithelial
lining, that it is spotty in the nasal mucosa, and
that it is most prominent in the nasopharynx.
Increased knowledge about the site of infection
and how symptoms are produced is essential for a
rational approach to the development of anti-viral
therapy.
Interferon for the treatment of
infections.
Ho M
Annu Rev Med (United States) 1987, 38 p51-9
Interferon, both natural and recombinant, has
been shown in controlled clinical studies to be
effective against herpes simplex virus infections,
herpes zoster, the common cold caused by
rhinoviruses, and some papilloma virus infections.
In some cases, it is in competition with other
antivirals, and in others its precise clinical
indication is still unclear. Thus, further work
and developments are required before interferon
becomes a clinically recognized antiviral
agent.
Effect
of Astragalus membranaceus on electrophysiological
activities of acute experimental coxsackie B-3
viral myocarditis in mice
Rui T; Yang YZ; Zhou TS
Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Disease.
Chung Kuo Chung Hsi I Chieh Ho Tsa Chih (China)
May 1994, 14 (5) p292-4, 262
A murine model for observing the effect of
Astragalus membranaceus (AM) on
electrophysiological activity of the right
ventricular myocardium was developed in 4 week-old
male BALB/c mice infected with Coxsackie B3 virus
(CB3V). The conventional microelectrode technique
and real-time microcomputer data processor system
was used. The survival rate in infected-AM treated
mice was significantly higher and the percentage
of abnormal action potential was much lower than
those in control mice (P < 0.05 and < 0.01
respectively). Some abnormal electrophysiological
parameters, such as APA, OS and Vmax in infected
myocardium were found to be improved by AM
treatment. Single dose of AM did not show
beneficial effect in murine myocardium infected
with CB3V. The results suggested that AM might be
valuable in the prevention and treatment of acute
myocarditis involving Coxsackie B3 virus.
Efficacy and safety of the
standardized ginseng extract G 115 for
potentiating vaccination against common cold
and/or influenza syndrome
Scaglione F, Cattaneo G, Alessandria M, Cogo
R
Department of Pharmacology, University of Milan,
Italy.
Drugs Exp Clin Res 1996;22(2):65-72
[Corrected] [published erratum appears in Drugs
Exp Clin Res 1996;22(6):338]
The aim of the study was to determine the
properties of a standardized extract of ginseng
root in inducing a higher immune response in
vaccination against influenza. Attention was also
paid to the common cold in this multicentre,
two-arm, randomized, placebo-controlled,
double-blind investigation. A total of 227
volunteers who visited 3 private practices in
Milan received daily oral capsule doses of either
placebo (113) or 100 mg of standardized ginseng
extract Ginsana G115 (114) for a period of 12
weeks within which they received an anti-influenza
polyvalent vaccination at week 4. As a result,
while the frequency of influenza or common cold
between weeks 4 and 12 was 42 cases in the placebo
group, it was only 15 cases in the G115 group, the
difference being statistically highly significant
(p < 0.001). Whereas antibody titres by week 8
rose to an average of 171 units in the placebo
group, they rose to an average of 272 units in the
G115 group (p < 0.0001). Natural killer (NK)
activity levels at weeks 8 and 12 were nearly
twice as high in the G115 group as compared to the
placebo group (p < 0.0001). In all the
volunteers, laboratory values of 24 safety
parameters showed no significant differences
between the end and the beginning of the 12-week
study in either of the groups. There were only 9
adverse events in the study, the principal one
being insomnia.
An
emerging green pharmacy: Modern plant medicines
and health
Laboratory Medicine (USA), 1996, 27/3
(170-176)
Recently plants have reemerged as sources of
new pharmaceuticals. Drugs derived from plants are
used to treat conditions ranging from arthritis
and malaria to leukemia and ovarian cancer. Some
of today's treatments use herbs directly.
Researchers also are studying a variety of foods
for their potential medicinal benefits. More and
more consumers are buying herbal medications in
the form of food supplements to use as analgesics,
sedatives, or immune system stimulants. Although a
few plants may cause serious adverse reactions,
many herbal preparations are considered to be safe
and effective in moderation. This is the third
article in a four-part continuing education update
series on botany. Other articles focus on the use
of plants to clean up the environment, the
historical use of plant therapies, and poisonous
plants. Following this series, participants should
be able to identify plants used medicinally today
and throughout history. They will recognize the
role of plants in the environment and be able to
identify toxic plants in the laboratory.
Immunity in myocardiac hypertrophy
rat and effect of total saponins of panax ginseng
in vivo and in vitro
Chinese Pharmacological Bulletin (China), 1996,
12/1 (84-86)
The model of rat myocardiac hypertrophy through
stricture on abdominal aorta partly by operation
showed that proliferation of T cell in thymus and
spleen decreased and IL-2 secretion reduced
markedly when rat blood pressure increased and the
wall of left ventricular thickened. Total saponins
of panax ginseng (TSPG 50 mg.kg-1.d-1, sc ) could
harmonize the higher blood pressure and increase
the level of immunity, suggesting TSPG may be used
to strengthen the heart function as well as
immunity.
Treatment of experimental coxsackie
B-3 viral myocarditis with astragalus membranaceus
in mice
Yang YZ, Jin PY, Guo Q, Wu WZ, Pu SY, Chen HZ,
Yang JH, Wang KQ, Shi JY, Gong ZX, et al
Shanghai Institute of Cardiovascular Disease,
Zhongshan Hospital, Shanghai Medical
University.
Chin Med J (Engl) 1990 Jan;103(1):14-8
A murine model system for observing the effect
of Astragalus Membranaceus (AM) on experimental
myocarditis caused by Coxsackie B-3 virus (CB3V)
was developed in 4-week-old male BALB / C mice.
Gross, histopathologic and ultrastructural
examinations of the infected-AM treated group
showed that the severity and involved area of the
myocardial lesions became milder and smaller than
those in the infected-NS treated mice. The total
lesion area, and the total lesion area / total
myocardial area examined (%) and virus titer in
the former group were also smaller and lower than
those in the latter group. The results suggest
that AM is effective in the inhibition of
Coxsackie B virus propagation and protection of
myocardium in mouse myocarditis.
Effect
of Astragalus membranaceus injecta on coxsackie
b-2 virusinfected rat beating heart cell
culture
Yang YZ; Guo Q; Jin PY; Pu SY; Chen HZ; Cheng
JR; Jin YX; Gong ZX; Shen JY
Chin. Med. J. (Peking) (China), 1987, 100/7
(595-602)
Astragalus membranaceus (AM) injecta protects
rat beating heart cells experimentally infected
with Coxsackie B-2 virus as evaluated for changes
in release of cardiac enzymes (lactate
dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase).
Heart beat rate, cytopathic effects, cardiac
cellular damage as measured by cytotoxicity assay,
virus titer, and ultrastructure were monitored.
Significant protective effects were demonstrated
when AM was given 1-9 hours post-infection. The
results suggest that AM may be valuable in
prophylaxis and treatment of acute Coxsackie virus
caused myocarditis
Sambucol(tm) inhibited
several straing of influenza virus and reduced
symptoms during an outbreak of Influenza B
Panama
Weizmann Institute of Science 2-15-94
Sambucol, a new product based on the fruit of
the black elder, inhibited the replication of
influenza virus types A and B: A/Beijing 32/92
(H3N2), A/Singapore 6/86 HlN1), B/Panama 45/90,
B/Yamagata 16/88 and B/Ann Arbor 1/86 in
Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (MDCK). A
placebo-controlled, double blind study was
conducted on a group of individuals living in a
kibbutz during an outbreak of influenza B/Panama
45/90 characterized by hemagglutination tese.
Patients who were admitted to the study had at
least three of the following symptoms of less than
24 h duration: fever > 38 C, myalgia, nasal
discharge and cough. Fever, feeling of improvement
and complete cure were recorded during 6-days.
Sera obtained in the acute and convalescent phases
were tested for the presence of antibodies to
influenza A and B, respiratory syncytia! and adeno
viruses. Convalescent phase serologies showed
higher mean and mean geometric hemagglutination
inhibirion titers eo influenza B in the Sambucol
group than in the control group, in spite of the
more rapid recovery. A complete cure was achieved
within 2 toe 3 days in nearly 90% of the Sambucol
group whereas recovery took at least 6 days in the
placebo group (p <0.001). In the absence of any
medication against influenza B virus and
considering its low cost and absence of
side-effects, Sambucol may offer the possibility
for safe treatment for influenza.
The
effect of Sambucol(tm) on HIV infection
in vitro
Congress of Microbiology 2-6-95
Sambucol, a new product based on the fruit of
the black elder, contains a high amount of three
flavonoids. Sambucol exhibited antiviral activity
against various strains of influenza virus (both A
and B), herpes virus type 1 and parainfluenza
viruses. In this study we tested the ability of
Sambucol to inhibit the infection of laboratory
HIV strains as well as clinical HIV isolates in
CD4+ cell lines (CEM and Molt 4) and human
peripheral blood lymphocytes. For this purpose HIV
was pre-incubated with two dilutions of Sambucol
before being added to the cells. We determined a
significant reduction in the infectivity of HIV
strains (ELI, LAI, HIV IIIb) in the presence of
Sambucol, by measuring the level of HIV core
antigen p24 in supernatants of the infected
cultures, as compared with controls without
Sambucol. We did not detect HIV-antigen 5 and 9
days post infection in cultures infected with
patient isolates which were previously treated
with Sambucol. Such an approach may have a
practical application in designing a simple or
combined viral intervention therapy for
individuals already exposed to the virus.
|